During the 19th century, the world’s most powerful nations industrialised. Industrialisation was a historically unique process. Industrialisation involved the creation of  ‘infrastructure’, communication through roads, railways, and canals; the building of massive factories, producing a huge volume of goods, and most of society living close together in urban housing side by side. None of this had ever occurred before in all the world’s history. Britain was out in front in the 19th century as she led the way with industrialisation, however, the USA caught up, and Germany too by the end of the century from a slow start. All three societies came to Industrialisation through their unique histories, so there were many differences.

The transformation from an ancient society towards an industrial urban capitalist world has nearly always been a revolutionary process which has torn society apart. The almost complete breakdown of societies in the multi-layered wars between the 1780s and 1815, and then from 1914 to 1945, reflect these long-term processes at work. At the end of both periods, not only was the world a very different place with many millions of people dead, but many of the necessary conditions towards the industrial urban capitalist world had also been established.

The twin historical forces of colonialism and capitalism ‘destroyed’ much of the ancient social, economic, ideological and political systems of the world and transformed it. Today we call this ‘progress’. Progress did not happen all at once, of course. People, states, and governments resisted over long periods, but in the end, most peoples were overwhelmed…